Published
2023-10-27
Issue
Section
Review Articles
License
The journal adopts the Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0), which means that anyone can reuse and redistribute the materials for non-commercial purposes as long as you follow the license terms and the original source is properly cited.
Author(s) shall retain the copyright of their work and grant the Journal/Publisher rights for the first publication with the work concurrently licensed since 2023 Vol.8 No.2.
Under this license, author(s) will allow third parties to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content under the condition that the authors are given credit. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher.
This broad license intends to facilitate free access, as well as the unrestricted use of original works of all types. This ensures that the published work is freely and openly available in perpetuity.
By providing open access, the following benefits are brought about:
- Higher Visibility, Availability and Citations-free and unlimited accessibility of the publication over the internet without any restrictions increases citation of the article.
- Ease of search-publications are easily searchable in search engines and indexing databases.
- Rapid Publication – accepted papers are immediately published online.
- Available for free download immediately after publication at https://esp.as-pub.com/index.php/ESP
Copyright Statement
1.The authors certify that the submitted manuscripts are original works, do not infringe the rights of others, are free from academic misconduct and confidentiality issues, and that there are no disputes over the authorship scheme of the collaborative articles. In case of infringement, academic misconduct and confidentiality issues, as well as disputes over the authorship scheme, all responsibilities will be borne by the authors.
2. The author agrees to grant the Editorial Office of Environment and Social Psychology a licence to use the reproduction right, distribution right, information network dissemination right, performance right, translation right, and compilation right of the submitted manuscript, including the work as a whole, as well as the diagrams, tables, abstracts, and any other parts that can be extracted from the work and used in accordance with the characteristics of the journal. The Editorial Board of Environment and Social Psychology has the right to use and sub-licence the above mentioned works for wide dissemination in print, electronic and online versions, and, in accordance with the characteristics of the periodical, for the period of legal protection of the property right of the copyright in the work, and for the territorial scope of the work throughout the world.
3. The authors are entitled to the copyright of their works under the relevant laws of Singapore, provided that they do not exercise their rights in a manner prejudicial to the interests of the Journal.
About Licence
Environment and Social Psychology is an open access journal and all published work is available under the Creative Commons Licence, Authors shall retain copyright of their work and grant the journal/publisher the right of first publication, and their work shall be licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0).
Under this licence, the author grants permission to third parties to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content with attribution to the author. No permission from the author or publisher is required.
This broad licence is intended to facilitate free access to and unrestricted use of original works of all kinds. This ensures that published works remain free and accessible in perpetuity. Submitted manuscripts, once accepted, are immediately available to the public and permanently accessible free of charge on the journal’s official website (https://esp.as-pub.com/index.php/ESP). Allowing users to read, download, copy, print, search for or link to the full text of the article, or use it for other legal purposes. However, the use of the work must retain the author's signature, be limited to non-commercial purposes, and not be interpretative.
Click to download <Agreement on the Licence for the Use of Copyright on Environmental and Social Psychology>.
How to Cite
The multiple meanings of silence in social psychology
Dat Bao
Faculty of Education, Monash University; Faculty of Foreign Languages, Dong Nai Technology University
DOI: https://doi.org/10.54517/esp.v8i3.2058
Keywords: silence, choice, culture, power, dialogue, protection, isolation, withdrawal, solitude
Abstract
Drawing on research-based discourse, this article provides an updated overview of what silence means in social psychology. Such meanings can be viewed from an interpersonal dimension and an intrapersonal dimension. That is, silence can be externally or internally generated. The external process sees silence as a response to the social environment, while the internal process views silence as an individual choice. The article argues that silence has a sociological nature. When a silent person sends out a silent message to the public (such as showing resistance or alienation), this person not only expresses their personal view but also acts on behalf of others. The article rests on the ideal of sociological imagination to argue that an individual’s issue of concern or trouble, seemingly a limited social experience, may not be a single case but can represent the concern of a group or a society. This means that the lives of individuals can signify the status and reaction of their community. By presenting silence from various individual perspectives, the article showcases the richness of what silence means and what it does in social contexts.
References
[1]. Mills CW. The Sociological Imagination. Oxford University Press; 1959.
[2]. Petkova DP. Silenced voices and speaking up: A case study of Romani people in Europe. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2021; 1(1): 9–18. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i1.1
[3]. Obenland CA, Munson AH, Hutchinson JS. Silent students in the active learning classroom. In: Mintzes JJ, Walter EM (editors). Active Learning in College Science: The Case for Evidence-Based Practice. Springer Nature; 2020. pp. 249–266.
[4]. Levelt WJM. A History of Psycholinguistics: The Pre-Chomskyan Era. Oxford University Press; 2013.
[5]. De Guerrero MCM. Going covert: Inner and private speech in language learning. Language Teaching 2018; 51(1): 1–35. doi: 10.1017/S0261444817000295
[6]. Sharpley CF. The influence of silence upon clinet-perceived rapport. Counselling Psychology Quarterly 1997; 10(3): 237–246. doi:10.1080/09515079708254176
[7]. Bugelski BR. Learning Theory and the Reading Process—The 23rd Annual Reading Conference. University of Pittsburgh Press; 1969.
[8]. Sokolov AN. Inner Speech and Thought. Springer Science & Business Media; 1972.
[9]. Paivio A. Imagery and Verbal Processes. Psychology Press; 1979.
[10]. John-Steiner V. Notebooks of the Mind: Explorations of Thinking, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press; 1997.
[11]. Ushakova TN. Inner speech and second language acquisition: An experimental-theoretical approach. In: Lantolf JP, Appel G (editors). Vygotskian Approaches to Second Language Research. Ablex; 1994. pp. 135–156.
[12]. De Guerrero MC. Form and functions of inner speech in adult second language learning. In: Lantolf JP, Appel G (editors). Vygotskian Approaches to Second Language Research. Ablex; 1994. pp. 83–116.
[13]. De Gerrero MCM, Villamil OS. Social-cognitive dimensions of interaction in L2 peer revision. The Modern Language Journal 1994; 78(4): 484–496. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4781.1994.tb02065.x
[14]. McCafferty SG. Nonverbal expression and L2 private speech. Applied linguistics 1998; 19(1): 73–96. doi: 10.1093/applin/19.1.73
[15]. Jaworski A. The Power of Silence: Social and Pragmatic Perspectives. Sage Publications; 1992.
[16]. O’Keefe VP. Speaking to Think, Thinking to Speak: The importance of Talk in the Learning Process. Boynton/Cook Publishers; 1995.
[17]. Jaworski A, Sachdev I. Beliefs about silence in the classroom. Language and Education 1998; 12(4): 273–292. doi: 10.1080/09500789808666754
[18]. Bao D. Understanding Silence and Reticence [PhD thesis]. Leeds Beckett University; 2002.
[19]. Niegemann HM. Learning and questioning: Review and perspectives on research (German). Unterrichtswissenschaft 2004; 32(4): 345–356. doi: 10.25656/01:5822
[20]. Wuttke E. Silence is silver, talk is gold? Analysis of classroom talk in a learner centred setting. In: Hjörne E, van der Aalsvoort G, de Abreu Guida (editors). Learning, Social Interaction and Diversity—Exploring Identities in School Practices. Sense Publishers; 2012. pp. 103–117.
[21]. Picard M. The World of Silence. Henry Regnery Company; 1952.
[22]. Baker SJ. The theory of silences. The Journal of General Psychology 1955; 53(1): 145–167. doi: 10.1080/00221309.1955.9710142
[23]. Bao D. Understanding Silence and Reticence: Ways of Participating in Second Language Acquisition. Bloomsbury; 2014.
[24]. Basso KH. “To give up on words”: Silence in western Apache culture. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 1970; 26(3): 213–230. doi: 10.1086/soutjanth.26.3.3629378
[25]. Bruneau TJ. Communicative silences: Forms and functions. Journal of Communication 1973; 23(1): 17–46. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1973.tb00929.x
[26]. Noelle-Neumann E. The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion—Our Social Skin. University of Chicago Press; 1993.
[27]. Johannesen RL. The functions of silence: A plea for communication research. Western Speech 1974; 38(1): 25–35. doi: 10.1080/10570317409373806
[28]. Tannen D, Saville-Troike M. Perspectives on Silence. Ablex Publishing Corporation; 1985.
[29]. Wardhaugh R. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Basil Blackwell; 1986.
[30]. Gilmore P. Silence and sulking: Emotional displays in the classroom. In: Deborah TD, Muriel ST. Perspectives on Silence. Ablex; 1985. p. 139–62.
[31]. Clair RP. Organizing silence: Silence as voice and voice as silence in the narrative exploration of the Treaty of New Echota. Western Journal of Communication 1997; 61(3): 315–337. doi: 10.1080/10570319709374580
[32]. Remedios L, Clarke D, Hawthorne L. The silent participant in small group collaborative learning contexts. Active Learning in Higher Education 2008; 9(3): 201–216. doi: 10.1177/1469787408095846
[33]. Zembylas M, Michaelides P. The sound of silence in pedagogy. Educational Theory 2004; 54(2): 193–210. doi: 10.1111/j.0013-2004.2004.00005.x
[34]. Liu J. Negotiating silence in American classrooms: Three Chinese cases. Language and Intercultural Communication 2002; 2(1): 37–54. doi: 10.1080/14708470208668074
[35]. Ridgway AJ. The inner voice. International Journal of English Studies 2009; 9(2): 45–58.
[36]. Saito H. Interactive speech understanding. Available online: https://aclanthology.org/C92-3165.pdf (accessed on 22 October 2023).
[37]. Reichle ED, Pollatsek A, Fisher DL, Rayner K. Toward a model of eye movement control in reading. Psychological Review 1998; 105(1): 125–157. doi: 10.1037/0033-295x.105.1.125
[38]. Mitchell R, Myles F. Second Language Learning Theories. Edward Arnold; 1998.
[39]. Edwards A, Westgate DP. Investigating Classroom Talk. Routledge; 2005.
[40]. Scott RL. Rhetoric and silence. Western Speech 1972; 36(3): 146–158. doi: 10.1080/10570317209373743
[41]. Dauenhauer BP. Silence: The Phenomenon and its Ontological Significance. Indiana University Press; 1980.
[42]. Kalamaras G. Reclaiming the tacit dimension: Symbolic form in the rhetoric of silence. State University of New York Press; 1994.
[43]. Fujio M. Silence during intercultural communication: A case study. Corporate Communications: An International Journal 2004; 9(4): 331–339. doi: 10.1108/13563280410564066
[44]. Scollon R, Scollon SW, Jones RH. Intercultural Communication: A Discourse Approach. Wiley-Blackwell; 2012.
[45]. Harumi S. The Use of Silence by Japanese Learners of English in Cross-Cultural Communication and its Pedagogical Implications [PhD thesis]. Institute of Education, University of London; 1999.
[46]. Nakane I. Silence in Intercultural Communication. Silence in Intercultural Communication. John Benjamins Publishing; 2007.
[47]. King J. “It’s time, put on the smile, it’s time!”: The emotional labour of second language teaching within a Japanese university. In: Gkonou C, Tatzl D, Mercer S (editors). New Directions in Language Learning Psychology. Springer; 2016. pp. 97–112.
[48]. Verouden NW, Van der Sanden MCA, Aarts N. Silence in intercultural collaboration: A Sino-Dutch research centre. Advances in Applied Sociology 2018; 8(2): 125–151. doi: 10.4236/aasoci.2018.82008
[49]. Morris S, King J. Teacher frustration and emotion regulation in university language teaching. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics 2018; 41(4): 433–452. doi: 10.1515/cjal-2018-0032
[50]. Morita N. Negotiating participation and identity in second language academic communities. TESOL Quarterly 2004; 38(4): 573–603. doi:10.2307/3588281
[51]. Harumi S. Classroom silence: Voices from Japanese EFL learners. ELT Journal 2011; 65(3): 260–269. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccq046
[52]. King J. Silence in the Second Language Classroom. Palgrave Macmillan; 2013.
[53]. Zhang X, Head K. Dealing with learner reticence in the speaking class. ELT Journal 2010; 64(1): 1–9. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccp018
[54]. Talandis Jr G, Stout M. Getting EFL students to speak: An action research approach. ELT Journal 2015; 69(1): 11–25. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccu037
[55]. Yashima T, MacIntyre PD, Ikeda M. Situated willingness to communicate in an L2: Interplay of individual characteristics and context. Language Teaching Research 2016; 22(1): 115–137. doi: 10.1177/1362168816657851
[56]. Bao D. The Japanese perception of silence in the Australian educational context. In: Asia as Method in Education Studies: A defiant research imagination. Taylor & Francis, Ltd; 2015. pp. 50–65.
[57]. Bao D. Silence seen through different lenses. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2021; 1(1): 1–8. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i1.7
[58]. Bao D. Exploring how silence communicates. English Language Teaching Educational Journal 2020; 3(1): 1–13. doi: 10.12928/eltej.v3i1.1939
[59]. Bao D. Silence, talk, and in-betweens: East-Asian students’ responses to task challenge in an Australian university. In: King J, Harumi S (editors). East-Asian Perspectives on Silence in English Language Education. Multilingual Matters; 2020. pp. 17–36.
[60]. Bao D. Voices of the reticent? Getting inside views of Vietnamese secondary students on learning. In: Cortazzi M, Jin L (editors). Researching Cultures of Learning, International Perspectives on Language Learning and Education. Palgrave Macmillan; 2013. pp. 136–154.
[61]. Bao D, Nguyen TM. How silence facilitates verbal participation. English Language Teaching Educational Journal 2020; 3(3): 188–197. doi: 10.12928/eltej.v3i3.3004
[62]. Bao D. Silence in English Language Pedagogy: From Research to Practice. Cambridge University Press; 2023.
[63]. Sifianou M. Silence and politeness in silence: Interdisciplinary perspectives. In: Jaworski A. (editor). Studies in Anthropological Linguistics 10. De Gruyter Mouton; 1997. pp. 63–84.
[64]. Agyekum K. The communicative role of silence in Akan. Pragmatics 2002; 12(1): 31–51. doi: 10.1075/prag.12.1.03agy
[65]. Yankah K. Speaking for the Chief: Okyeame and the Politics of Akan Royal Oratory. Indiana University Press; 1995.
[66]. Kenny C. The Power of Silence: Silent Communication in Daily Life, 1st ed. Routledge; 2018.
[67]. Bloom LA. Classroom Management: Creating Positive Outcomes for All Students, 1st ed. Merrill Prentice Hall/Pearson; 2009.
[68]. Gunawardena CN, Nolla AC, Wilson PL, et al. Distance Education 2001; 22(1): 85–121. doi: 10.1080/0158791010220106
[69]. Leh ASC. Computer-mediated communication and social presence in a distance learning environment. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications 2001; 7(2): 109–128.
[70]. Zembylas M, Vrasidas C. Listening for silence in text-based, online encounters. Distance Education 2007; 28(1): 5–24. doi: 10.1080/01587910701305285
[71]. Bao D. Book Review: The Bloomsbury handbook of solitude, silence and loneliness. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 1(2): 82–85. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i2.22
[72]. Bao D. The place of silence in second language acquisition. English Language Teaching and Research Journal 2019; 1(1): 26–42. doi: 10.33474/eltar-j.v1i1.4771
[73]. Tomlinson B. The inner voice: A critical factor in L2 learning. The Journal of the Imagination in Language Learning and Teaching 2001; 6(2): 26–33.
[74]. Bao D. English in the real world: What classroom pedagogy has not taught. Transitions: Journal of Transient Migration 2019; 3(2): 109–126. doi: 10.1386/tjtm_00002_1
[75]. Bao D, Ye Y. Investigating learner silent and verbal responses to tasks. International Journal of Language Teaching and Education 2020; 4(1): 61–72. doi: 10.22437/ijolte.v4i1.10469
[76]. Bao D. Understanding Silence and Reticence: Ways of Participating in Second Language Acquisition. Bloomsbury; 2014.
[77]. Huynh HH, Adams M. Vietnamese teacher educators’ perceptions of silence during online English as a Foreign Language classes. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 1(2): 57–69. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i2.10
[78]. Shachter J, Haswell CG. Exploring ways of accommodating silent Japanese language learners in the classroom: Insights from scholars in the field. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 1(2): 70–81. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i2.12
[79]. Umino T. Reconceptualising the silent period: Stories of Japanese students studying abroad. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2023; 2(2): 68–81.
[80]. Liu R, Martino ND. Non-verbal interaction in the early years: Case study of Mandarin learning in Australia. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 1(2): 1–11. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i2.19
[81]. Tulviste T, Mizera L, De Geer B, Tryggvason MT. A silent Finn, a silent Finno-Ugric, or a silent Nordic? A comparative study of Estonian, Finnish, and Swedish mother-adolescent interactions. Applied Psycholinguistics 2003; 24(2): 249–265. doi: 10.1017/s0142716403000146
[82]. San Pedro TJ. Silence as shields: Agency and resistances among Native American students in the urban Southwest. Research in the Teaching of English 2015; 132-153.
[83]. Borella A. A socio-anthropological analysis of forms of prayer among the Amish. In: Giuseppe G, Woodhead L (editors). A Sociology of Prayer. Routledge; 2015. pp. 119–132.
[84]. Mills MA. The silence in between: Governmentality and the academic voice in Tibetan diaspora studies. In: De Neve G, Unnithan-Kumar M (editors). Critical Journeys. Routledge; 2016. pp. 191–205.
[85]. Liu NF, Littlewood W. Why do many students appear reluctant to participate in classroom learning discourse? System 1997; 25(3): 371–384. doi: 10.1016/S0346-251X(97)00029-8
[86]. Rachel Zhou Y, Knoke D, Sakamoto I. Rethinking silence in the classroom: Chinese students’ experiences of sharing indigenous knowledge. International Journal of Inclusive Education 2005; 9(3): 287–311. doi: 10.1080/13603110500075180
[87]. Albert EM. “Rhetoric,” “Logic,” and “Poetics” in Burundi: Culture Patterning of Speech Behavior. American Anthropologist 1964; 66(6): 35–54. doi: 10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00020
[88]. Achino-Loeb ML. Silence: The Currency of Power. Berghahn Books; 2005.
[89]. Beaudoin MF. Reflections on seeking the ‘invisible’ online learner. In: Visser J, Visser-Valfrey M (editors). Learners in a Changing Learning Landscape: Reflections from a Dialogue on New Roles and Expectations. Springer; 2008. pp. 213–226.
[90]. Lakshmi S, Mutyala U, Reddy R. Investigating Indian ESL learners’ silent behaviour in response to oral tasks in online and offline classes. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 1(2): 46–55. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i2.24
[91]. Bosacki S, Quenneville S, Powell S. Talwar V. Canadian adolescents’ solitude experiences, self-perceptions, and well-being. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 2(1): 28–42. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v2i1.30
[92]. Zebdi R, Monsillion J. Quiet children and adolescents: Understanding and helping youth with selective mutism. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2023; 2(2): 135–144.
[93]. Alerby E, Brown J. Silent and invisible students: The importance of listening to the silence and seeing the invisible. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2021; 1(1): 19–31. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i1.2
[94]. Takahashi J. Behind the invisible curtain: Silence as a multimodal negotiation space in group Q-and-A sessions at a Japanese university. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2023; 2(2): 102–120.
[95]. Harumi S. The mediative role of learning materials: Raising L2 learners’ awareness of silence and conversational repair during L2 interaction. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2023; 2(2): 145–162.
[96]. Geva S. Inner speech and mental imagery: A neuroscientific perspective. In: Langland-Hassan P, Vicente A (editors). Inner Speech: New Voices. Oxford University Press; 2018. pp. 105–130.
[97]. Chamorro-Premuzic T, Furnham A, Lewis M. Personality and approaches to learning predict preference for different teaching methods. Learning and Individual Differences 2007; 17(3): 241–250. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2006.12.001
[98]. Vygotsky LS. Thought and Language. MIT Press; 1962.
[99]. Lantolf JP, Thorne SL. Sociocultural Theory and Genesis of Second Language Development. Oxford University Press; 2006.
[100]. Khutorskoy AV. Key competencies as a component of student-centered education. Public Education 2003; 2: 55–60.
[101]. Lees HE. Science and self-care via therapy and Internal Family Systems in the context of silence practices for schools. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 2(1): 56–67. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v2i1.28
[102]. Wałejko M, Stern J. Solitude together with education. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 2(1): 1–4. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v2i1.31
[103]. Dubas E. Learning in/of solitude in the context of pedagogical monoseology. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 2(1): 5–15. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v2i1.27
[104]. Webster AM. Children reading alone and reading together: Literary representations and lessons from a pandemic. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 2(1): 16–27. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v2i1.25
[105]. Musaio M. A pedagogical interpretation of loneliness for an interiority education. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 1(2): 33–45. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i2.18
[106]. Maher K. Reframing silence: Insights into language learners’ thoughts about silence and speaking-related anxiety. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2021; 1(1): 32–47. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i1.3
[107]. Karas M, Uchihara T. Silence: A duoethnography. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2021; 1(1): 64–75. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i1.5
[108]. Turnbull J. An emic perspective on silence: Experiences of an adult Mexican migrant in the U.S. social setting. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2021; 1(1): 48–63. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i1.4
[109]. Fjeld T. The silence of the educated. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 2(1): 43–55. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v2i1.29
[110]. Kоrol AD. Silence as a pedagogical issue: Heuristic perspectives. Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 1(2): 12–22. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i2.11
[111]. Takahashi M. When the silence breaks a border on stage: A case study of a performance by the disabled dance and performance company the “Shizuoka No-Borders.” Journal of Silence Studies in Education 2022; 1(2): 23–32. doi: 10.31763/jsse.v1i2.13