Published
2025-02-19
Section
Review Articles
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Tsabedze W.F.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
The journal adopts the Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0), which means that anyone can reuse and redistribute the materials for non-commercial purposes as long as you follow the license terms and the original source is properly cited.
Author(s) shall retain the copyright of their work and grant the Journal/Publisher rights for the first publication with the work concurrently licensed since 2023 Vol.8 No.2.
Under this license, author(s) will allow third parties to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content under the condition that the authors are given credit. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher.
This broad license intends to facilitate free access, as well as the unrestricted use of original works of all types. This ensures that the published work is freely and openly available in perpetuity.
By providing open access, the following benefits are brought about:
- Higher Visibility, Availability and Citations-free and unlimited accessibility of the publication over the internet without any restrictions increases citation of the article.
- Ease of search-publications are easily searchable in search engines and indexing databases.
- Rapid Publication – accepted papers are immediately published online.
- Available for free download immediately after publication at https://esp.as-pub.com/index.php/ESP
Copyright Statement
1.The authors certify that the submitted manuscripts are original works, do not infringe the rights of others, are free from academic misconduct and confidentiality issues, and that there are no disputes over the authorship scheme of the collaborative articles. In case of infringement, academic misconduct and confidentiality issues, as well as disputes over the authorship scheme, all responsibilities will be borne by the authors.
2. The author agrees to grant the Editorial Office of Environment and Social Psychology a licence to use the reproduction right, distribution right, information network dissemination right, performance right, translation right, and compilation right of the submitted manuscript, including the work as a whole, as well as the diagrams, tables, abstracts, and any other parts that can be extracted from the work and used in accordance with the characteristics of the journal. The Editorial Board of Environment and Social Psychology has the right to use and sub-licence the above mentioned works for wide dissemination in print, electronic and online versions, and, in accordance with the characteristics of the periodical, for the period of legal protection of the property right of the copyright in the work, and for the territorial scope of the work throughout the world.
3. The authors are entitled to the copyright of their works under the relevant laws of Singapore, provided that they do not exercise their rights in a manner prejudicial to the interests of the Journal.
About Licence
Environment and Social Psychology is an open access journal and all published work is available under the Creative Commons Licence, Authors shall retain copyright of their work and grant the journal/publisher the right of first publication, and their work shall be licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0).
Under this licence, the author grants permission to third parties to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content with attribution to the author. No permission from the author or publisher is required.
This broad licence is intended to facilitate free access to and unrestricted use of original works of all kinds. This ensures that published works remain free and accessible in perpetuity. Submitted manuscripts, once accepted, are immediately available to the public and permanently accessible free of charge on the journal’s official website (https://esp.as-pub.com/index.php/ESP). Allowing users to read, download, copy, print, search for or link to the full text of the article, or use it for other legal purposes. However, the use of the work must retain the author's signature, be limited to non-commercial purposes, and not be interpretative.
Click to download <Agreement on the Licence for the Use of Copyright on Environmental and Social Psychology>.
How to Cite
Social demographic factors influence on recidivism risk behaviour of offenders: Literature review
Tsabedze W.F.
Department of Psychology, University of South Africa (UNISA),7535, South Africa
DOI: https://doi.org/10.59429/esp.v10i2.2825
Keywords: Behaviour; Eswatini; offenders; recidivism risk; sociodemographic
Abstract
Offensive behaviour is motivated by lived experiences, social-demographic factors contribute leading to high risk of recidivism. Correctional centres globally are overcrowded due to the high rate of crime. This review is informed by a Doctoral Degree in Psychology study focusing on Eswatini, a review of the literature was conducted to explore and discuss the influence of social demographic factors on recidivism risk in low-middle-income countries such as Eswatini Correctional Centres. A narrative literature review was used as a research method. Evidence was purposively extracted from databases such as ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and EBSCOHost to collect data. The researcher identified three themes (i) social-demographic factors (Gender, age, and duration of imprisonment), (ii) type of crime, and (iii) frequency of offending. Empirical research must be conducted to investigate the social and demographic factors that contribute to the risk of recidivism.
References
[1]. 1.Blais J, Babchishin KM, Hanson RK. Improving our risk communication: Standardized risk levels for brief assessment of recidivism risk-2002R. Sexual Abuse. 2022;34(6):667-98.
[2]. 2.Roberts CF, Doren DM, Thornton D. Dimensions associated with assessments of sex offender recidivism risk. Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2002;29(5):569-89.
[3]. 3.Mulder E, Brand E, Bullens R, Van Marle H. Risk factors for overall recidivism and severity of recidivism in serious juvenile offenders. International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology. 2011;55(1):118-35.
[4]. 4.Matshaba TD. Youth offenders’ perceptions on the components of the unit management approach: a case study of youth development centres in South Africa. Acta Criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology. 2017;30(4):72-91.
[5]. 5.Ogembo W. Female Recidivism And Prison Rehabilitation: The Case Of Lang'ata Women Maximum Security Prison: University Of Nairobi; 2019.
[6]. 6.Vieira-Pinto P, Taveira-Gomes T, Vidal-Alves MJ, Muñoz-Barús JI, Magalhães T. Suspension of criminal proceedings for perpetrators of intimate partner violence against women: impact on re-entries. Frontiers in psychology. 2021:4914.
[7]. 7.Svendsen JM, Preiholt H. Towards a Conceptualization of Recidivism and Repetitive Behavior. International Journal of Criminology and Sociological Theory. 2017;10(2):1-13.
[8]. 8.Maslov W. Countering Recidivism in Russia: Challenges and Prospects. Perm U Herald Jurid Sci. 2024;63:134.
[9]. 9.Robertson AA, Zhou QM, Tatch A, Walsh M. Gender-specific predictors of recidivism among DUI offenders. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs. 2019;80(6):641-50.
[10]. 10.Marshall EA, Miller HA. Examining gender-specific and gender-neutral risk factors in women who sexually offend. Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2019;46(4):511-27.
[11]. 11.Vitopoulos NA, Peterson-Badali M, Brown S, Skilling TA. The relationship between trauma, recidivism risk, and reoffending in male and female juvenile offenders. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma. 2019;12(3):351-64.
[12]. 12.Willis J. The relationship between emotional intelligence and recidivism among female offenders: Northcentral University; 2019.
[13]. 13.DeLisi M, Drury AJ, Elbert MJ. Do behavioral disorders render gang status spurious? New insights. International journal of law and psychiatry. 2019;62:117-24.
[14]. 14.Pyrooz DC, Clark KJ, Tostlebe JJ, Decker SH, Orrick E. Gang affiliation and prisoner reentry: discrete-time variation in recidivism by current, former, and non-gang status. Journal of research in crime and delinquency. 2021;58(2):192-234.
[15]. 15.Wolff KT, Baglivio MT, Limoncelli KE, Delisi M. Pathways to Recidivism: Do Behavioral Disorders Explain the Gang-Recidivism Relationship during Reentry? Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2020;47(7):867-85.
[16]. 16.Alcantud PM. Full Issue 8 (1) 2019. Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies. 2019;8(1).
[17]. 17.Scanlan JM, Yesberg JA, Fortune C-A, Polaschek DL. Predicting women’s recidivism using the dynamic risk assessment for offender re-entry: Preliminary evidence of predictive validity with community-sentenced women using a “gender-neutral” risk measure. Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2020;47(3):251-70.
[18]. 18.Steyn M. Muti murders form South Africa: A case report. Forensic science international. 2005;151(2-3):279-87.
[19]. 19.Steyn F, Booyens K. A profile of incarcerated female offenders: implications for rehabilitation policy and practice. Acta Criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology. 2017;30(4):33-54.
[20]. 20.Gould C. Beaten bad-the life stories of violent offenders. Institute for Security Studies Monographs. 2015;2015(192):1-144.
[21]. 21.Villanueva L, Valero-Moreno S, Cuervo K, Prado Gascó V. Sociodemographic variables, risk factors, and protective factors contributing to youth recidivism. 2019.
[22]. 22.McGloin JM, Thomas KJ. Peer influence and delinquency. Annual Review of Criminology. 2019;2:241-64.
[23]. 23.Nyarko NYA, Aikins LV, Nyarko NAA, Aboagye EA. Juvenile Delinquency: Its Causes and Effects. JL Pol'y & Globalization. 2019;88:166.
[24]. 24.Shabangu SB, Koen V. An exploration of at-risk youths’ resilience within the context of a correctional centre in Eswatini. Journal of health psychology. 2022:13591053221079951.
[25]. 25.Reeta V. Effect of Peer Influence on Juvenile Delinquency. Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. 2020;11(2):148-52.
[26]. 26.Novak A, Fagan A. Expanding research on the school-to-prison pipeline: Examining the relationships between suspension, expulsion, and recidivism among justice-involved youth. Crime & Delinquency. 2022;68(1):3-27.
[27]. 27.Durose MR, Antenangeli L. Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 34 States in 2012: A 5-Year Follow-Up Period (2012–2017). Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics. 2021.
[28]. 28.Nguyen H, Kamada T, Ramakers A. On the margins: considering the relationship between informal work and reoffending. Justice quarterly. 2020:1-28.
[29]. 29.Galbiati R, Ouss A, Philippe A. Jobs, News and Reoffending after Incarceration. The Economic Journal. 2021;131(633):247-70.
[30]. 30.Bhuller M, Dahl GB, Løken KV, Mogstad M. Incarceration, recidivism, and employment. Journal of Political Economy. 2020;128(4):1269-324.
[31]. 31.Adu-Boateng D. The Role of Supervised Community Service and Socio-Economic Status in Recidivism Pertaining to Financial Crimes among Ex-Convicts: Nova Southeastern University; 2019.
[32]. 32.Fox L, Kaul U. The evidence is in: How should youth employment programs in low-income countries be designed? World Bank Policy Research Working Paper. 2018(8500).
[33]. 33.Adenutsi DE. Entrepreneurship, job creation, income empowerment and poverty reduction in low-income economies. 2009.
[34]. 34.Jayachandran S. Microentrepreneurship in developing countries. Handbook of Labor, Human Resources and Population Economics. 2021:1-31.
[35]. 35.Awad A. Economic globalisation and youth unemployment–evidence from African countries. International Economic Journal. 2019;33(2):252-69.
[36]. 36.Magee G. Education Reduces Recidivism. Technium Soc Sci J. 2021;16:175.
[37]. 37.Payton D. Educators’ Perspectives Regarding the Influence of Prison Education Programs on Recidivism: Walden University; 2021.
[38]. 38.Thomas M. An exploration of recidivism based on education and race: Walden University; 2020.
[39]. 39.Walk D, Haviv N, Hasisi B, Weisburd D. The role of employment as a mediator in correctional education's impact on recidivism: A quasi-experimental study of multiple programs. Journal of Criminal Justice. 2021;74:101815.
[40]. 40.Tsabedze WF. Psychosocial pathways to recidivism-risk among offenders in correctional centres in Eswatini: a mediation study: North-West University (South-Africa); 2021.
[41]. 41.Fair H, Walmsley R. World Prison Population List. World Prison Brief: London, UK. 2021.
[42]. 42.Bruyns H. The impact of prison reform on the inmate population of Swaziland: University of South Africa South Africa; 2007.
[43]. 43.Leslie RD. Lesotho, Botswana and Swaziland. African Penal Systems: Routledge; 2024. p. 165-90.
[44]. 44.Malindisa LM, Winterdyk JA. Corrections and juvenile delinquency in the Kingdom of Swaziland: an exploratory study. Acta Criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology. 2015;2015(sed-1):44-61.
[45]. 45.SI A, AQ Y. SWAZILAND STATE OF THE YOUTH REPORT 2015.
[46]. 46.Maschi T, Morgen K, Leibowitz G, Rees J. Exploring the relationship between cumulative trauma and recidivism among older adults: Does race and offense history matter? Traumatology. 2019;25(1):11.
[47]. 47.Jäggi LJ, Mezuk B, Watkins DC, Jackson JS. The relationship between trauma, arrest, and incarceration history among black Americans: Findings from the National Survey of American Life. Society and mental health. 2016;6(3):187-206.
[48]. 48.Kubrin CE, Squires G, Stewart E, editors. Neighborhoods, race, and recidivism: The Community reoffending nexus and its implications for African Americans. SAGE Race Relations Abstracts; 2007.
[49]. 49.Mallari K, Inkpen K, Johns P, Tan S, Ramesh D, Kamar E, editors. Do I Look Like a Criminal? Examining how Race Presentation Impacts Human Judgement of Recidivism. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems; 2020.
[50]. 50.Murray J, Atilola O. Determinants of youth crime in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health. 2020;4(2):96-8.
[51]. 51.Pare PP, Felson R. Income inequality, poverty and crime across nations. The British journal of sociology. 2014;65(3):434-58.
[52]. 52.Sugiharti L, Purwono R, Esquivias MA, Rohmawati H. The nexus between crime rates, poverty, and income inequality: A case study of Indonesia. Economies. 2023;11(2):62.
[53]. 53.Prinsloo J, Naude B, Ladikos T, Snyman R, Ngwisha JK. The International Crime (victim) survey in Swaziland (1998). Acta Criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology. 2001;14(1):20-30.
[54]. 54.Филиппова ОВ. Состояние рецидивной преступности и социально-экономическое положение региона. Вестник Томского государственного университета. 2023(495):228-33.
[55]. 55.Peterman A, Neijhoft A, Cook S, Palermo TM. Understanding the linkages between social safety nets and childhood violence: a review of the evidence from low-and middle-income countries. Health policy and planning. 2017;32(7):1049-71.
[56]. 56.Wrigley-Asante C, Owusu G, Oteng-Ababio M, Owusu AY. Poverty and crime: Uncovering the hidden face of sexual crimes in urban low-income communities in Ghana. Ghana Journal of Geography. 2016;8(1):32-50.
[57]. 57.Cantos AL, Kosson DS, Goldstein DA, O’Leary KD. Treatment impact on recidivism of family only vs. generally violent partner violence perpetrators. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology. 2019;19(3):171-80.
[58]. 58.Wallace D, Larson M, Somers L, Padilla KE, Mays R. Recidivism and relationships: Examining the role of relationships, transitions, and relationship quality in reincarceration. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology. 2020;6(3):321-52.
[59]. 59.Yukhnenko D, Blackwood N, Fazel S. Risk factors for recidivism in individuals receiving community sentences: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CNS spectrums. 2020;25(2):252-63.
[60]. 60.Hasisi B, Carmel T, Weisburd D, Wolfowicz M. Crime and terror: Examining criminal risk factors for terrorist recidivism. Journal of quantitative criminology. 2020;36(3):449-72.
[61]. 61.Chan HC, Heide KM, Beauregard E. Male and female single-victim sexual homicide offenders: Distinguishing the types of weapons used in killing their victims. Sexual Abuse. 2019;31(2):127-50.
[62]. 62.Hulme S, Morgan A, Boxall H. Domestic violence offenders, prior offending and reoffending in Australia. Trends and issues in crime and criminal justice. 2019(580):1-22.
[63]. 63.Lekalakala ER. A comparative penological study on recidivism 2016.
[64]. 64.Muthaphuli P. Using diversion as a re-entry and treatment practice for young sexual offenders: a case study. Child abuse research in South Africa. 2017;18(2):40-9.
[65]. 65.Muthaphuli P, Terblanche S. A penological perspective on rehabilitation as a sentencing aim. Acta Criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology. 2017;30(4):16-32.
[66]. 66.Cervera VG, Loría CG, Macedonio Hernandez CA, Carballo Solis LM. Treatment of Adolescents in Conflict with the Law: Towards the Reduction of Recidivism. US-China L Rev. 2017;14:671.
[67]. 67.van der Put CE, Assink M, Gubbels J. Differences in risk factors for violent, nonviolent, and sexual offending. Journal of forensic psychology research and practice. 2020;20(4):341-61.
[68]. 68.Gumboh E. Examining the application of deterrence in sentencing in Malawi. Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal/Potchefstroomse Elektroniese Regsblad. 2017;20(1).
[69]. 69.Curlewis LG. Understanding imprisonment-an in-depth discussion-criminal law & procedure. De Rebus. 2016;2016(564):34-5.
[70]. 70.Mowen TJ, Boman JH, Stansfield R. Uniting needs, responses, and theory during reentry: The distinct and joint contributions of peer influence and religious/spiritual support on substance use. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation. 2018;57(3-4):222-40.
[71]. 71.Stansfield R, Mowen TJ, O’Connor T, Boman JH. The role of religious support in reentry: Evidence from the SVORI data. Journal of Research in Crime Delinquency. 2017;54(1):111-45.
[72]. 72.Glueck S. Theory and fact in criminology. Brit J Delinq. 1956;7:92.
[73]. 73.Цветкова Н. Личностные характеристики вновь осужденных к лишению свободы мужчин, связанные с временным интервалом между двумя судимостями. Психология и право. 2024;14(3):94-106.
[74]. 74.Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology. 2006;3(2):77-101.
[75]. 75.Stansfield R, Mowen TJ, O’Connor T, Boman JH. The role of religious support in reentry: Evidence from the SVORI data. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 2017;54(1):111-45.
[76]. 76.Stansfield R, O’Connor T, Duncan J, Hall S. Comparing recidivism of sexual and nonsexual offenders: the role of humanist, spiritual, and religious involvement. Sexual Abuse. 2020;32(6):634-56.